Posted in Africa, Elephants, Nature, Photography

The Oldest Human Footprints in the World

An excerpt from my book in progress:

Morula

After Morula finishes browsing, I follow her down one of the unmapped, two-track, lightly traveled, nameless roads of the Okavango Delta.

Zik! Zik! Zik-zik! A masked weaver hops through the brush beside us. White clouds above our heads twirl like cotton candy across the sky. The track we’re following parts a shallow lake of grass and climbs out on an island of trees. A game trail crosses the road. Morula swivels her trunk to one side, then the other, at the intersection where the grass is beaten down.

In dun-colored sand as finely ground as cake flour, Morula’s prints barely register. I can’t see a single puff from the impact of her feet. With each step, she leaves behind outlines of small moons. We cross the recent, delicate hoof prints of impala and the moons obliterate them.

photo by Cheryl Merrill
photo by Cheryl Merrill

My boot prints, inside the crater of her footprints, look like exclamation points, the heel separate from the rest of my sole.

The oldest human footprints in the world are 1500 miles north of here, at Laetoli, in Tanzania. Found in 1976, the 3.5 million-year-old footprints are not far from the Olduvai Gorge, where the Leakey family discovered the first hominids. Although the Laetoli hominids are Australopithecines and not Homo sapiens, they are part of our family tree, a relationship comparable to that of mammoths and elephants.

Fossil footprints are not uncommon, especially near ancient riverbeds. But the Laetoli footprints were created when a nearby volcano erupted, covering the ground with a slurry of volcanic ash somewhat the consistency of concrete. Once excavated, the site was found to have over 9,500 impressions, mostly made by rabbits. In order of decreasing abundance, tracks were also found of guinea fowl, hyena, antelope, rhinoceros, giraffe, buffalo, elephant, horse, small carnivores, monkeys, pigs and ostriches. Just one short, 80-foot section was made by hominids.

Their footprints – that of a man, a woman and a small child – tell us much about our ancestry. For in that trackway is a hesitation, as if one of the hominids thought about turning left. Perhaps it was the moment before an earthquake, when the ground was no longer solid beneath their feet. Or perhaps one of them considered turning around, going back.

I stop and look over my shoulder, in the same way my human ancestor did. All of Africa stretches out behind me – overlapped boot prints and footprints leading backward into her hot, crowded maze of life. It was Africa who designed us to walk upright across her landscapes. Because of Africa, I know the ground better than I know trees.

In the distance, across a golden backwater of high grass, stand a family of giraffes. They are motionless, watching us cross between islands of bush. The spotted derricks of their necks swivel in all directions to get a better look at us. At the end of each neck a head is cocked sideways: the universal body language that says, “Huh?” But once we stop to look, they turn away and head for cover, except for one curious female who continues to watch us.

photo by Cheryl Merrill
photo by Cheryl Merrill

Tramping along in Morula’s wake, I’m beginning to get the hang of all this walking and browsing – less sweating, less reliance on my water bottle.   I’m beginning to wish I could do this every day of my life.

 

Posted in Africa, Elephants, Nature, Photography

Year of the Elephant: Swamp Lessons

A baby elephant crosses a small swamp, guided by Mom.  And of course she got a chance to stop and play in it, too.  A beautiful afternoon in Zambia, 2012.

Baby ellie swamp

Posted in Africa, Elephants, Nature, Photography

Let Freedom Ring

Free to Roam
Free to Roam

“For the animal shall not be measured by man. In a world older and more complete than ours they move finished and complete, gifted with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living by voices we shall never hear. They are not brethren, they are not underlings; they are other nations caught with ourselves in the net of life and time, fellow prisoners of the splendor and travail of the earth.” – Henry Beston

And should we not, therefore, allow our fellow prisoners the freedoms to which our nation, our populace aspires?  Life.  Liberty.  The pursuit of Happiness – which I interpret as a life well lived.

Posted in Africa, Elephants, Nature, Photography, Travel

Year of the Elephant: Vegetarians

Cow elephant, Samburu, Kenya
Cow elephant, Samburu, Kenya

It takes a lot of foliage to sustain an elephant.  Depending on its sex and size, elephants eat four to seven percent of its body weight each day – four hundred to six hundred pounds of vegetation.  And sometimes they take offense if you disturb their meal.

(Currently, the Samburu area of Kenya is experiencing its highest level of poaching in 14 years.  I hope this young cow has survived.)

Posted in Africa, Elephants, Extinction, Nature, Photography

Year of the Elephant: Camouflage

Year of the Elephant continues a series on the lives of elephants in today’s world.

Jabu in the trees 2

Camouflage is the art of hiding in plain sight.  Of standing perfectly still, keeping silent.  Elephants know how to do this.  It’s a necessary skill.

 

 

Posted in Africa, Elephants, Extinction, Nature, Photography

Morning in Africa: Year of the Elephant

Taking a break from the Ivory Timeline and beginning a new series to heighten awareness of how elephants live.  If poaching is not stopped, elephants will become extinct in our lifetimes.

Morning in Africa

“I never knew a morning in Africa when I woke up and was not happy.”  Earnest Hemingway

Posted in Elephants, Nature

Ivory, Part Five

An Ivory Timeline: Netsuke

Popularized in the 17th century and still available today, netsuke (pronounced nets-keh) are small carved toggles used to attach pouches or boxes to the sashes of traditional Japanese robes worn by men, robes which had no pockets. Instead, “sagemono” (suspended objects) hung by cords from the belts of men’s kimono robes – the two holes in the netsuke at the end of the cords prevented them from slipping through the sash. Sagemono included cloth pouches, small woven baskets, or the most popular (and beautifully made) wooden boxes.   In this manner, Japanese men carried pipes, tobacco, writing implements, personal seals, medicine, or money. The combination of sagemona and netsuke were carefully considered before any well-dressed gentleman appeared in public.

www.starnetsuke.com
http://www.starnetsuke.com

 

Most popular during the Endo period (1615-1868), netsuke evolved from being strictly utilitarian objects made of shell and wood into intricately carved miniature sculptures with motifs inspired by animals, vegetables, fairy tales, daily life and mythological or religious figures. Most common are sculptural netsuke: compact three-dimensional figures carved into round shapes and one to three inches long. Other types include elongated carvings, hollow netsuke, masks, or trick netsuke with hidden or moving parts.

Materials used for carving netsuke include elephant and mammoth ivory, hardwoods, hippopotamus tusks, boar tusks, rhinoceros horn, antlers, and clay. Woven netsuke are made from cane. Other materials used are the casques (upper mandible) of the Helmeted hornbill; black coral; partially fossilized pine and cedar wood found under sections of Sendai, Japan; walrus tusks; sperm whale teeth; whale bone; bear’s teeth; tiger’s teeth; ivory palm nuts, walnuts; agate; the underground stems of bamboo; and ivorine – made from the dust created when carving ivory, which is mixed with clear resin and compressed.

Subjects portrayed by netsuke include nearly every aspect of Japanese culture, including people famous, anonymous, historical, fantastical, or real. Some netsuke depict entire scenes from mythology, literature, or history. Trades people were often carved in action – woodcutters cutting wood, fishermen catching fish. Other subjects included plants, especially beans and chestnuts, often carved in actual size; inanimate objects such as roof tiles, coins and tools; and abstract patterns. Shunga, or erotic netsuke, include humans or animals in acts of conjugation or contain subtle or symbolic sexual references. Animal subjects varied from zodiac signs to rats, from octopi to rabbits. One of my favorites is by Masatoshi: “Baku Monster Who Eats Nightmares.” It resembles a standing pregnant elephant with red eyes, dark curly hair, and biceps. A contemporary piece, it is made of ivory.Angry elephant

Nearly 50% of netsuke is ivory.

Netsuke: an art that requires death.

Between 1977 and 1987 Japan imported 2,832 tons of elephant ivory. Two-thirds of that amount was carved into Hankos, writing seals still required on official documents. One hundred and seventy tons of ivory went into the production of netsuke. In 1989, a ban was enacted on all ivory trade. Still, countries could apply for, and receive, ivory under special sales. In 2006, 2.8 tons of illegal ivory was seized in Osaka. Japan last received a legal import of ivory in 2009.In 2011, Japan’s biggest ivory dealer, Takaichi Co., was found to be trading in “unregistered” ivory. An estimated 572-1622 illegal tusks had been converted into hankos between 2005 and 2010 by the firm – 87% of their production.And nearly all Japanese people have figurines, anime or cartoon characters, many made from ivory, hanging from their mobile phones — a mass-produced, contemporary way keeping alive the nation’s netsuke tradition.

Netsuke. Small, beautiful sculptures made of calcium, made from the incisors of dead elephants.

Posted in Elephants, Nature, Photography

Ivory, Part Four

Ivory was the plastic of the Victorian Age:

From the 1860s to the 1880s, an estimated 100,000 elephants per year were slaughtered for their ivory, a total of two million elephants in twenty years.  Their tusks were made into:

Fish hooks, spoons, arrowheads, buttons, bagpipe joints, fans, buckles, brush handles,

Victorian Ivory Crucifix www.pinterest.com
Victorian Ivory Crucifix
http://www.pinterest.com

letter openers, rosary beads, bookends, tiny elephant statuettes, pistol grips,

bracelets, hairbrushes, fans, chess pieces, crucifixes, necklaces, perfume

bottles, furniture inlays, tankards, umbrella stands, champagne

buckets, vases, waste-paper baskets, chessboards, dice,

dominoes, rolling pins, rings, salt shakers, engraved

boxes, door knobs, shoehorns, paper clips,

broaches, pool cues, pens, guitar

pegs, cribbage boards,

butter knives, cuff

links,  tie

tacks,

key chains, needles, flutes, hairpins, coins, salt cellars, reliquary panels, communion

boxes, hunting horns, cups, plumb bobs, knitting needles, fiddle pegs, thimbles,

whistles, stash bottles, opium pipes, book covers, napkin rings, spatulas,

foot-scrapers, snuff boxes, tiddlywinks, sword hilts, nit-picking

Ivory Tusk Cribbage Board www.cribbagecorner.com
Ivory Tusk Cribbage Board
http://www.cribbagecorner.com

combs, cricket cages, riding whips, telegraph keypads,

teapot handles, backscratchers, chopsticks,

toothpicks, stools, toys, corkscrews,

cigarette holders . . . .

Victorian gentry wore perforated ivory cylinders around their necks, each cylinder baited with blood – flea traps.  Women with high Marie Antoinette wigs had long ivory sticks for scratching their scalps.  Renoir’s favorite formulation for black paint included burnt ivory, which was also used to tint gray hair.  Peter the Great spent long hours turning out ivory candlesticks and goblets on his lathe.  It was fashionable for gentry to have such hobbies.  Newton had his portrait painted in watercolor on an ivory medallion, another fashionable thing to do.

Ivory was used in making billiard balls and piano keys – fixtures of Victorian gentility.  Industrialized plants in Ivoryton, Connecticut produced 350,000 pianos; each and every key made of ivory.  Ivory shavings were boiled with water into jelly and hawked for medicinal purposes.  Ivory dust was sold as fertilizer.

Billiard balls required the use of small, straight female tusks, which could yield five or less rough-cut balls, with the central nerve channel in the precise middle of each ball.  They were highly valued because such balls rolled in true lines.  The density of each ball was matched with similar balls to produce a complete set.   A complete set of fifteen billiard balls required the tusks from three elephants.

Victorian Billiard Ball Showing Nerve Channel www.ebay.com
Victorian Billiard Ball Showing Nerve Channel
http://www.ebay.com

Most billiard players were unaware that the click of one ball hitting another was the same sound elephants produce in the wild as they greet each other by gently tapping their tusks together.

Ivory billiard balls changed according to weather and the temperature of the room.  Queen Victoria kept her billiard table heated.  Shipping labels on sets of balls warned that they would split if used when cold.  Eventually, over time, ivory billiard balls developed an egg shape and needed to be replaced.  As a hedge against fluctuating supply (tusks) and demand (replacement sets) manufacturers stocked as many as twenty thousand balls in vaults with stable temperatures.

When cheaper resin replaced ivory for billiard balls and plastic replaced ivory piano keys, elephants were given a reprieve.

A hundred years later, that reprieve would end.

African Elephant photo by Cheryl Merrill
African Elephant
photo by Cheryl Merrill
Posted in Elephants, Nature, Photography

Ivory, Part Three

An Ivory Timeline:  from the Pharaohs to the Victorians

After the fall of Rome in 476 AD, Europe lost both its sources of elephant ivory and even knowledge of the animal that bore it.  But the military campaigns by the Latin Catholic Church for the control of the Holy Lands (known as the Crusades) introduced luxury goods from the East, ivory among them.  With the conquering of Jerusalem in 1099, merchants began shipping ivory from East Africa along the Red Sea and from trans-Saharan routes to the Mediterranean and on to Venice, Genoa and Marseille.   By the middle of the 13th century, a huge carving industry was based in Paris, supplying mostly religious items.  The Sainte-Chapelle Virgin (sculpted between1260 – 1270) replicates the natural curve of an elephant’s tusk in its stance.  The Virgin leans on one leg while supporting the Christ child on her opposite hip while the baby Jesus reaches out with his left hand to an apple she is holding.  Her robe is finely decorated with gold.  It was a popular sculpture in the Sainte-Chapelle church, with many imitations.

The Sante-Chapelle Virgin
The Sante-Chapelle Virgin

After 1400, ivory began to appear in musical instruments (flutes, lutes, guitars and harpsichords) in scientific instruments (sundials, compasses and rulers) and in weaponry (matchlock inlays of nymphs and hunting scenes).  Traders swarmed the Ivory Coast (all of West Africa) the Gold Coast (Ghana) and the Slave Coast (Togo, Benin and western Nigeria).  These three main trade items – slaves, ivory and gold – made immense fortunes for the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British and French.  From 1699 to 1725, in a span of only twenty-five years, a quarter million tusks left West Africa, representing the deaths of 117,500 elephants.  Each tusk was transported out of the interior on the back of a slave.

Invented in 17th century Japan, a button-like fastener called a netsuke secured cords that held small containers on the outside of traditional garments.  Originally utilitarian in design, netsuke evolved into objects of extraordinary craftsmanship, made of materials that ranged from hardwood to porcelain to ivory, and depicting subjects as diverse as animals to mythological deities.   Some netsuke pieces are highly sexual in content and some depict entire scenes from history – all on a miniature object usually no bigger than an inch long.

Netsuke Tiger & Cub
Netsuke Tiger & Cub

Although traditional netsuke production ended in the late 1800s, modern craftsman produce work that still demands high prices.  And, as in ancient times, netsuke continues to be carved from boar tusks, rhinoceros horn, hippopotamus teeth, and elephant tusks.  Unfortunately, many reproductions are mass-produced carvings sold with fake staining and cross-hatching that would be found in ancient ivory pieces.  Anyone collecting netsuke should have considerable knowledge of the subject before they spend money, even on modern boxwood netsuke.  And, as always, modern ivory carvings of any sort, unless they are made from mammoth ivory, probably originate with illegal elephant ivory.

From the 1860s to the 1880s, an estimated 100,000 elephants per year were slaughtered for the ivory trade, a total of two million elephants in twenty years, as ivory became the plastic of the Victorian Age.

Kenyan male elephant
Kenyan male elephant
Posted in Africa, Elephants, Extinction, Jabu, Nature, Nonfiction, Photography, Travel, Writing

Ivory, Part One

Jabu's tusk
An African elephant’s tusk

Carved ivory thrones are mentioned in the Bible.  King Solomon had one, covered with gold.  Tutankhamen’s casket had a carved ivory headrest for his pillow.  Cicero wrote of Roman houses where ivory doors opened onto entire rooms covered with ivory tiles.  Gladiators had chariots made of ivory.

In the 1800s, in Africa, ton after ton of tusks were transported thousands of miles to Zanzibar and Khartoum, carried on the backs of slaves.  By the 1980s, more than 300 elephants a day were slaughtered for their ivory, nearly 100,000 per year.

In Amboseli National Park, in Tanzania, a recessive gene is becoming dominant, occurring in 50 years instead of thousands, selected by poachers.

Year after year tuskless elephants are born.

Both male and female African elephants grow tusks – the largest upper incisors on this planet.  Tusks are defined as long teeth protruding beyond the mouth growing usually, but not always, in pairs.  Most tusks are enlarged canines, such as those of warthogs, wild boars, hippopotamus and walruses.  Enlarged canines in the myriad species of cats and dogs are called fangs.

Elephants and narwhal whales have incisor tusks.  The narwhal’s single tusk is a left front incisor that grows in a straight spiral.  Found mostly in males, narwhal tusks are believed to be the origin of unicorn legends.  Oddly enough, narwhals with two tusks are usually female.

By the time Jabu is sixty, his tusks could theoretically reach a length of 18 to 20 feet.  But in reality – if he does reach sixty – they will be much shorter, due to the wear and tear of everyday use.

Tusks on bull elephants can weigh seven times that of those on cows.  The biggest pair of tusks on record weighed 460 pounds, taken from an old bull killed in 1897 near Mount Kilimanjaro in Kenya.

The longest tusks ever found came from an elephant shot in the Congo in 1907.  Its right tusk was 11.4 feet long; it’s left tusk 11 feet.

Such extraordinarily enormous tusks are a genetic trait, much the same as red hair is a genetic trait.  Over the centuries poachers and hunters have always targeted male elephants with the largest tusks.  As a result, the trait has disappeared from most elephant populations.

The same outcome would occur if redheads were systematically eliminated within family groups.   As their genes died out, the redheads among us would become extinct.